Puerto Ricans in World War II.html
 
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then-Major General Pedro del Valle, US Marine Corps (second from left) was the first Puerto Rican to achieve a general rank, is greeted by then-Colonel Chesty Puller, US Marine Corps, on Pavuvu in late October 1944, while Major General Rupertus, US Marine Corps, (far left) looks on.
then-Major General Pedro del Valle, US Marine Corps (second from left) was the first Puerto Rican to achieve a general rank, is greeted by then-Colonel Chesty Puller, US Marine Corps, on Pavuvu in late October 1944, while Major General Rupertus, US Marine Corps, (far left) looks on.

Puerto Ricans and people of Puerto Rican descent have participated as members of the United States armed forces in every conflict in which the United States has been involved since World War I. In World War II Puerto Rican members of the U.S. armed forces guarded U.S. military installations in the Caribbean and took part in combat in the European and Pacific theatres.

Puerto Ricans became U.S. citizens as a result of the 1917 Jones-Shafroth Act and were expected to serve in the military. When a Japanese Imperial Navy carrier fleet launched an unexpected attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, Puerto Ricans were required to bear arms in defense of the United States. During World War II, more than 53,000 Puerto Ricans served in the U.S. military.[1] Most of the soldiers from the island served in either the 65th Infantry Regiment or the Puerto Rican National Guard. As the induction of Puerto Ricans into the armed forces increased many were assigned to units in the Panama Canal Zone and British Islands to replace the continental troops serving in regular Army units.[2] Those who resided in the mainland of the United States were assigned to regular units of the military. They were often subject to the racial discrimination that was widespread in the United States at the time.[1]

Puerto Rican women who served had their options restricted to nursing or administrative positions. In World War II some of the island's men played active roles as commanders in the military. The military did not keep statistics with regard to the total number of Hispanics who served in the regular units of the Armed Forces, only of those who served in Puerto Rican units; therefore, it is impossible to determine the exact number of Puerto Ricans who served in World War II.[3]

Contents

Lead-up to World War II

Soldiers of the 65th Infantry training in Salinas, Puerto Rico, August 1941
Soldiers of the 65th Infantry training in Salinas, Puerto Rico, August 1941

In 1936, Puerto Ricans were already fighting on European soil in the Spanish Civil War, years before the United States entered World War II.

The Spanish Civil War was a major conflict in Spain that started following an attempted coup d'état committed by parts of the army, led by the Nationalist General Francisco Franco, against the government of the Second Spanish Republic. Puerto Ricans fought on behalf of both of the factions involved, the "Nationalists" as members of the Spanish Army and the "Loyalists" (Republicans) as members of the Abraham Lincoln International Brigade.[4]

Among the Puerto Ricans who fought alongside General Franco on behalf of the Nationalists was General Manuel Goded Llopis (1882–1936), a high ranking officer in the Spanish Army. Llopis, who was born in San Juan, was named Chief of Staff of the Spanish Army of Africa, after his victories in the Rif War, took the Balearic Islands and by order of Franco, suppressed the rebellion of Asturias. Llopis was sent to lead the fight against the Anarchists in Catalonia, but his troops were outnumbered. He was captured and was sentenced to die by firing squad.[5][6]

Among the many Puerto Ricans who fought on behalf of the Second Spanish Republic as members of the Abraham Lincoln Brigade, was Lieutenant Carmelo Delgado Delgado (1913–1937), a leader of the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party from Guayama who upon the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War was in Spain in pursuit of his law degree. Delgado was an anti-fascist who believed that the Spanish Nationalists were traitors. He fought in the Battle of Madrid, but was captured and was sentenced to die by firing squad on April 29, 1937; he was amongst the first US citizens to die in that conflict.[7]

MG Luis R. Esteves
MG Luis R. Esteves

In 1937, Japan invaded China and in 1939 Germany invaded Poland. In October 1940, the 295th and 296th Infantry Regiments of the Puerto Rican National Guard, founded by Major General Luis R. Esteves, were called into Federal Active Service and assigned to the Puerto Rican Department in accordance with the existing War Plan Orange.[8] During that period of time, Puerto Rico's economy was suffering from the consequences of the Great Depression, and unemployment was widespread. Unemployment was one of the reasons that some Puerto Ricans chose to join the Armed Forces.[9]

Most of these men were trained in Camp Las Casas in Santurce, Puerto Rico, and were assigned to the 65th Infantry Regiment, a segregated unit made up mostly of Puerto Ricans. The rumors of war spread, and the involvement of the United States was believed to be a question of time. The 65th Infantry was ordered to intensify its maneuvers, many of which were carried out at Punta Salinas near the town of Salinas in Puerto Rico.[10] Those who were assigned to the 295th and 296th regiments of the Puerto Rican National Guard received their training at Camp Tortuguero near the town of Vega Baja.

World War II

After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor and the entry of the US into the war, the Puerto Ricans living on the island and on the U.S. mainland began to fill the ranks of the four major branches of the Armed Forces. Some volunteered for patriotic reasons, some joined in need of employment, and others were drafted.[11] In 1943, there were approximately 17,000 Puerto Ricans under arms, including the 65th Infantry Regiment and the Puerto Rico National Guard. The Puerto Rican units were stationed either in Puerto Rico or in the Virgin Islands.[11]

France's possessions in the Caribbean began to protest against the Vichy government in France, a government backed by the Germans who invaded France. The island of Martinique was on the verge of civil war. The United States organized a joint Army-Marine Corps task force, which included the 295th Infantry (minus one battalion) and the 78th Engineer Battalion, both from Puerto Rico for the occupation of Martinique. The use of these infantry units was put on hold because Martinique's local government decided to turn over control of the colonies to the French Committee of National Liberation.[2]

A small detachment of insular troops from Puerto Rico was sent to Cuba in late March as a guard for Batista Field. In 1943, the 65th Infantry was sent to Panama to protect the Pacific and the Atlantic sides of the isthmus. An increase in the Puerto Rican induction program was immediately authorized and continental troops such as the 762nd, 766th, and the 891st Antiaircraft Artillery Gun Battalions, were replaced by Puerto Ricans in Panama.[12][13] They also replaced troops in bases on British Islands as well, to the extent permitted by the availability of trained Puerto Rican units. The 295th Infantry Regiment followed the 65th Infantry in 1944, departing from San Juan, Puerto Rico, to the Panama Canal Zone.[2] Among those who served with the 295th Regiment in the Panama Canal Zone was a young Second Lieutenant by the name of Carlos Betances Ramirez, who would later become the only Puerto Rican to command a Battalion in the Korean War.[14] On November 25, 1943, Colonel Antulio Segarra, proceeded Col. John R. Menclenhall as Commander of the 65th Infantry, thus becoming the first Puerto Rican Regular Army officer to command a Regular Army regiment.[15] In January 1944, the 65th Infantry embarked for Jackson Barracks in New Orleans and later to Fort Eustis in Newport News, Virginia, in preparation for overseas deployment to North Africa. For some Puerto Ricans, this would be the first time that they were away from their homeland. Being away from their homeland for the first time would serve as an inspiration for the compositions of two of Puerto Rico's most renowned Bolero's; "En mi viejo San Juan" (In my Old San Juan) by Noel Estrada [16] and "Despedida" (My Good-bye), a farewell song written by Pedro Flores and interpreted by Daniel Santos.[17]

Juan Cesar Cordero Davila (pictured as a Major General)
Juan Cesar Cordero Davila (pictured as a Major General)

Once in North Africa, the Regiment underwent further training at Casablanca. By April 29, 1944, the Regiment had landed in Italy and moved on to Corsica.[18] On September 22, 1944, the 65th Infantry landed in France and was committed to action on the Maritime Alps at Peira Cava. On December 13, 1944, the 65th Infantry, under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Juan Cesar Cordero Davila, relieved the 2nd Battalion of the 442nd Infantry Regiment, a Regiment which was made up of Japanese Americans under the command of Col. Virgil R. Miller, a native of Puerto Rico. The 3rd Battalion fought against and defeated Germany's 34th Infantry Division's 107th Infantry Regiment.[19] There were 47 battle casualties, including Private Sergio Sanchez-Sanchez and Sergeant Angel Martinez from the town of Sabana Grande, who became the first two Puerto Ricans to be killed in combat action from the 65th Infantry as a result of a German assault on Company "L". On March 18, 1945, the regiment was sent to the District of Mannheim and assigned to military occupation duties. The regiment suffered a total of 23 soldiers killed in action.[20][21]

On January 12, 1944, the 296th Infantry Regiment departed from Puerto Rico to the Panama Canal Zone. In April 1945, the unit returned to Puerto Rico and soon after was sent to Honolulu, Hawaii. The 296th arrived on June 25, 1944 and was attached to the Central Pacific Base Command at Kahuku Air Base.[22]

Puerto Ricans who were fluent in English or who resided on the mainland were assigned to regular Army units. Such was the case of Sgt. First Class Louis Ramirez, who was assigned to the 102nd Cavalry Reconnaissance Squadron, Mechanized, which landed at Normandy on D-Day (Battle of Normandy), June 6, and advanced into France during the Battle of Saint-Malo, where they were met by enemy tanks, bombs and soldiers. PFC Fernando Pagan was also a Puerto Rican who resided on the mainland; he was assigned to unit Company A, 293 Combat Engineering Battalion, which arrived in Normandy on June 10. Others, like Frank Bonilla, were assigned to the 290th Infantry Regiment, 75th Infantry Division, which later fought in the front lines at the Battle of the Bulge. Bonilla was the recipient of the Silver Star and Purple Heart medals for his actions in combat. [23] One Puerto Rican who earned a Bronze Star in the Battle of the Bulge was PFC Joseph A. Unanue, whose father was the founder of Goya Foods. Unanue had trained for armored infantry, and went to the European Theater as a gunner in A company, 63rd Armored Infantry Battalion, 11th Armored Division. His company landed in France in December 1944, just before the Battle of the Bulge.[24][25][26]

Notable Puerto Rican combatants

Distinguished Service Cross
Distinguished Service Cross

Private Anibal Irrizarry was a member of Co. L of the 18th Infantry Regiment, 1st Infantry Division which landed in Oran, Algeria on November 8, 1942 as part of Operation Torch. That same month his outfit was pinned down by enemy machine gun fire. Irrizarry worked his way up to the hillside where the enemy was located and killed the entire crew with his BAR. He then went on to capture eight prisoners and wiped out another machine gun nest, firing at his outfit, with a grenade at twenty yards of distance before he was seriously wounded. Irizarry, who was awarded the Purple Heart Medal, became the first Puerto Rican to be awarded the Distinguished Service Cross.[27][28]

then-Sergeant Agustin Ramos Calero
then-Sergeant Agustin Ramos Calero

Agustin Ramos Calero was one of many Puerto Ricans who distinguished themselves in combat. Calero's company was in the vicinity of Colmar, France, and engaged in combat against a squad of German soldiers in what is known as the Battle of Colmar Pocket. Calero attacked the squad, killing ten of them and capturing 21 shortly before being wounded himself. Following these events, he was nicknamed "One-Man Army" by his comrades. A Silver Star was among the 22 decorations and medals which he was awarded from the US Army for his actions during World War II, thus becoming the most decorated soldier from the island and the most decorated Puerto Rican soldier in the United States during that war.[29]

PFC Santos Deliz was assigned to Battery D, 216 AAA, a gun battalion, and sent to Africa in 1943 to join the Third Army. According to Deliz, Patton demanded the best from all under him, including cooks and kitchen hands. Deliz, who earned a Bronze Star Medal, once recounted an experience which he had with General Patton:

Patton went in to inspect and he scolded me because I had rations over the amount I should've had. The rations were food the GIs didn't want, so instead of dumping it, I sometimes gave it to the people who were around there.[30]

Some also served in the United States Army Air Force. Among them were then-Captain Mihiel "Mike" Gilormini and T/Sgt. Clement Resto.

Brigadier General Mihiel "Mike" Gilormini
Brigadier General Mihiel "Mike" Gilormini

then-Captain Mihiel "Mike" Gilormini served in the Royal Air Force and in the Army Air Force during World War II. He was a flight commander whose last combat mission was attacking the airfield at Milano, Italy. His last flight in Italy gave air cover for General George C. Marshall's visit to Pisa. He was the recipient of the Silver Star Medal, the Air Medal with four clusters and the Distinguished Flying Cross 5 times. Gilormini later became the Founder of the Puerto Rico Air National Guard and retired as Brigadier General.

T/Sgt. Clement Resto served with the 303rd Bomb Group and participated in numerous bombing raids over Germany. During a bombing mission over Duren, Germany, Resto's plane, a B-17 Flying Fortress, was shot down . He was captured by the Gestapo and sent to Stalag XVII-B where he spent the rest of the war as a prisoner of war. Resto, who lost an eye during his last mission, was awarded a Purple Heart, a POW Medal and an Air Medal with one battle star after he was liberated from captivity.[31][32]

Sgt. Fernando Bernacett
Sgt. Fernando Bernacett

In 1945, when Kwajalein of the Marshall Islands was secured by the U.S. forces, Sergeant Fernando Bernacett was among the Marines who were sent to guard various essential military installations. Bernacett, a combat veteran of the Battle of Midway, guarded the airport and prisoners of war as well as the atomic bomb as it made its way for Japan.[33]

Women in the military

Puerto Rican nurses in Camp Tortuguero
Puerto Rican nurses in Camp Tortuguero

When the United States entered World War II, Puerto Rican nurses volunteered for service but were not accepted into the Army or Navy Nurse Corps. In 1944, the Army Nurse Corps decided to actively recruit Puerto Rican nurses so that Army hospitals would not have to deal with the language barriers. Among them was Second Lieutenant Carmen Dumler, who became one of the first Puerto Rican female military officers. A total of 200 women from Puerto Rico served as nurses.[34]

T/4. Carmen Contreras-Bozak
T/4. Carmen Contreras-Bozak

Not all the women served as nurses: some women served in administrative duties in the mainland or near combat zones. Such was the case of Technician Fourth Grade Carmen Contreras-Bozak who belonged to the 149th Women's Army Auxiliary Corps. The 149th Women's Army Auxiliary Corps (WAAC) Post Headquarters Company was the first WAAC Company to go overseas, setting sail from New York Harbor for Europe on January 1943. The unit arrived in Northern Africa on January 27, 1943 and rendered overseas duties in Algiers within General Dwight D. Eisenhower's theater headquarters. T/4. Carmen Contreras-Bozak, a member of this unit, was the first Hispanic to serve in the U.S. Women's Army Corps as an interpreter and in numerous administrative positions.[34][35]

LTJG Maria Rodriguez Denton
LTJG Maria Rodriguez Denton

Another was Lieutenant Junior Grade Maria Rodriguez Denton, who was the first woman of Puerto Rican descent who became an officer in the United States Navy as member of the WAVES. The Navy assigned LTJG Denton as a library assistant at the Cable and Censorship Office in New York City. It was LTJG Denton who forwarded the news (through channels) to President Harry S. Truman that the war had ended.[34]

Puerto Rican commanders

Left to right: Major General Geiger, Corps Commander; Colonel Silverthorn, Corps Chief of Staff and Brigadier General del Valle, Corps Artillery Commander, examine a plaster relief map of Guam on board the USS Appalachian.
Left to right: Major General Geiger, Corps Commander; Colonel Silverthorn, Corps Chief of Staff
and Brigadier General del Valle, Corps Artillery Commander, examine a plaster relief map of Guam on board the USS Appalachian.

In addition to Lieutenant Colonel Juan Cesar Cordero Davila, nine Puerto Ricans who graduated from the United States Naval Academy and the United States Military Academy served in command positions in the Army, Navy and the Marine Corps.[36] They were: Rear Admiral Frederick Lois Riefkohl, USN, the first Puerto Rican to graduate from the Naval Academy and recipient of the Navy Cross; Rear Admiral Jose M. Cabanillas, USN, who was the Executive Officer of the USS Texas which participated in the invasions of North Africa and Normandy (D-Day); Rear Admiral Edmund Ernest Garcia, USN, commander of the destroyer USS Sloat (DE-245) who saw action in the invasions of Africa, Sicily, and France; Admiral Horacio Rivero, Jr., USN, who was the first Hispanic to become a four-star Admiral; Captain Marion Frederic Ramirez de Arellano, USN, submarine commander of the USS Balao (SS-285) credited with sinking two Japanese ships; Rear Admiral Rafael Celestino Benitez, USN, a highly decorated submarine commander who was the recipient of two Silver Star Medals; Colonel Virgil R. Miller, USA, Regimental Commander of the 442nd Regimental Combat Team; Colonel Jaime Sabater, USMC, Class of 1927 and Lieutenant General Pedro Augusto del Valle, USMC, the first Hispanic to reach the rank of General in the Marine Corps.

Rear Admiral Riefkohl (Later years)
Rear Admiral Riefkohl (Later years)
  • Prior to World War II, Rear Admiral Jose M. Cabanillas served aboard various cruisers, destroyers and submarines. In 1942, upon the outbreak of World War II, he was assigned Executive Officer of the USS Texas. The Texas participated in the invasion of North Africa by destroying an ammunition dump near Port Lyautey. Cabanillas also participated in the invasion of Normandy on D-Day.[38]
Captain Marion Frederic Ramirez de Arellano
Captain Marion Frederic Ramirez de Arellano
  • Rear Admiral Rafael Celestino Benitez, who was at the time a Lieutenant Commander, saw action aboard submarines and on various occasions weathered depth charge attacks. For his actions, he was awarded the Silver and Bronze Star Medals. Benitez would later play an important role in the first American undersea spy mission of the Cold War as commander of the submarine USS Cochino in what became known as the "Cochino Incident".[43]
  • Lieutenant General Pedro Augusto del Valle, a highly decorated Marine, played a key role in the Guadalcanal Campaign and the Battle of Guam and became the Commanding General of the First Marine Division. Del Valle played an instrumental role in the defeat of the Japanese forces in Okinawa and was in charge of the reorganization of Okinawa.[47][43][48]

Discrimination

During World War II, the United States Army was segregated. Puerto Ricans who resided on the mainland and who were fluent in English served alongside their "White" counterparts and "Black" Puerto Ricans were assigned to units made up mostly of African-Americans. Puerto Ricans from the island served in Puerto Rico's segregated units, like the 65th Infantry and the Puerto Rico National Guard's 285th and 296th regiments. Racial discrimination practiced against Hispanic Americans, including Puerto Ricans on the United States' east coast and Mexican Americans in California and the Southwest, was widespread. Some Puerto Ricans who served in regular Army units were witnesses to the racial discrimination of the day.[49]

PFC Raul Rios Rodriguez
PFC Raul Rios Rodriguez

In an interview, PFC Raul Rios Rodriguez said that during his basic training at Fort Bragg, North Carolina, he had encountered a strict drill instructor who was particularly harsh on the Hispanic and black soldiers in his unit. He stated that he remains resentful of the discriminatory treatment that Latino and black soldiers received during basic training: "We were all soldiers; we were all risking our lives for the United States. That should have never been done, Never."[50] Rios Rodriguez was shipped to Le Havre, France, assigned to guard bridges and supply depots in France and Germany with the 18th Infantry Regiment, 1st Infantry Division.[50]

Another soldier, PFC Felix López-Santos was drafted into the Army and sent to Fort Dix in New Jersey for training. López -Santos went to Milne Bay and then to the small island of Woodlark, both in New Guinea, where he was in the communications department using telephone wires to communicate to the troop during the war. In an interview, López-Santos stated that in North Carolina he witnessed some forms of racial discrimination, but never experienced it for himself. He stated: "I remember seeing some colored people refused service at a restaurant, I believe that I was not discriminated against because of my blue eyes and fair complexion."[51]

Post World War II

The American participation in the Second World War came to an end in Europe on May 8, 1945 when the western Allies celebrated "V-E Day" (Victory in Europe Day) upon Germany's surrender, and in the Asian theater on August 14, 1945 "V-J Day" (Victory over Japan Day) when the Japanese surrendered by signing the Japanese Instrument of Surrender.

On October 27, 1945, the 65th Infantry, which had participated in the battles of Naples–Fogis, Rome–Arno, central Europe and of the Rhineland, sailed home from France. Arriving at Puerto Rico on November 9, 1945, they were received by the local population as national heroes and given a victorious reception at the Military Terminal of Camp Buchanan. The 295th Regiment returned on February 20, 1946 from the Panama Canal Zone, and the 296th Regiment on March 6. Both regiments were awarded the American Theatre streamer (The 295th was also awarded the Pacific Theatre streamer) and were inactivated that same year.[52]

Many of the men and women who were discharged after the war returned to their civilian jobs or made use of the educational benefits of the G.I. Bill. Others, such as Major General Juan Cesar Cordero Davila, Colonel Carlos Betances Ramirez, Sergeant First Class Agustin Ramos Calero and Master Sergeant Pedro Rodriguez, continued in the military as career soldiers and went on to serve in the Korean War.[53]

Some of the Puerto Ricans from the mainland who had not completed their full active duty in the military service were reassigned to the 65th Infantry in Puerto Rico. According to remarks made by Frank Bonilla in an interview, he discovered that there was a divide among the soldiers. The Puerto Ricans who had emigrated to the mainland were seen as "American Joes". while Puerto Ricans from the island considered themselves "pure" Puerto Ricans. Bonilla is quoted as saying:

The Puerto Rican soldiers paid little, if any, attention to the playing of the 'Star Spangled Banner"; Bonilla at first thought the soldiers were being disrespectful to the United States, especially since they stood at attention whenever "La Borinqueña," the Puerto Rican anthem, was played. "The soldiers in the regiment, although proud to be U.S. citizens, felt that they were a Puerto Rican army, not a US army," Mr. Bonilla said. "These men had a select unit pride because they had had more time overseas and in combat areas than the American units.[54]

El Monumento de la Recordacion
El Monumento de la Recordacion

Bonilla eventually earned a Ph.D. from Harvard and held faculty appointments at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Stanford University and the City University of New York. He became a major leader in Puerto Rican studies.[54]

According to the 4th Report of the Director of Selective Service of 1948, a total of 51,438 Puerto Ricans served in the Armed Forces during World War II. These numbers only reflect those who served in Puerto Rican units. However, the total number of Puerto Ricans who served in World War II in other units cannot be determined because the military categorized Hispanics along with whites. The only racial groups for which separate statistics were kept were Blacks and Asians.[55][56]

The names of the 37 men who are known to have perished in the conflict are engraved in "El Monumento de la Recordacion" (Memorial Monument) monument which honors the memory of those who fallen in the defense of the United States and which is located in San Juan, Puerto Rico.[57]

Notes

  1. ^ a b "Introduction: World War II (1941 -1945)". America USA: Hispanics in the Defense of America. Retrieved on 2007-03-19.
  2. ^ a b c Stetson Conn, Rose C. Engelman, and Byron Fairchild (1961). "The Caribbean in Wartime". U.S. Army in World War II: Guarding the United States and Its Outposts. Center of Military History, United States Army. Retrieved on 2007-04-01.
  3. ^ World War II By The Numbers, The National World War II Museum, New Orleans. Retrieved August 22, 2007.
  4. ^ Latinos who fought in Spain, Retrieved November 12, 2007
  5. ^ "Richard A. H. Robinson. The Origins of Franco’s Spain – The Right, the Republic and Revolution, 1931-1936. (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1970) p.28", Retrieved November 12, 2007
  6. ^ Battle for Spain, Retrieved November 12, 2007
  7. ^ US citizens that fought against fascism, Retrieved November 12, 2007
  8. ^ Hector Marin. "Puerto Rican Units (WWII)". America USA: Hispanics in the Defense of America. Retrieved on 2007-03-18.
  9. ^ El Boricua, Retrieved July 15, 2008
  10. ^ Bruce C. Ruiz (November 1, 2002). "Major General Luis Raúl Esteves Völckers". bruceruiz.net. Retrieved on 2007-04-01.
  11. ^ a b ["The Caribbean in Wartime"; Stetson Conn, Rose C. Engelman, and Byron Fairchild; Center of Military History, United States Army]
  12. ^ United States War Department, History of the 762nd Antiaircraft Artillery Gun Battalion; 15 September 1943 to 31 May 1945; Former designation 72d Coast Artillery Regiment; Fort Randolph, Canal Zone; Prepared at Inglewood, California and dated 31 May 1945; Available from the National Archives and Records Administration, Maryland.
  13. ^ United States War Department; History of the 891st Antiaircraft Artillery Gun Battalion; 15 September 1943 to 28 February 1945; Former designation First Battalion, 615th CA (AA). Fort Clayton, Canal Zone; Prepared at Inglewood, California and dated 31 May 1945; Available from the National Archives and Records Administration, Maryland.
  14. ^ Mervin Key. A Short Biography of Carlos Betances-Ramirez. mervino.com Retrieved on 2007-04-01
  15. ^ Commands
  16. ^ Popular Culture
  17. ^ Francisco José Correa Bustamante (1995). Daniel Santos: Su vida y sus canciones. Guayaquil, Ecuador: Editores Corsan, pp. 25–51. 
  18. ^ "Military History". American Veteran's Committee for Puerto Rico Self-Determination. Retrieved on 2007-03-18.
  19. ^ LTC Gilberto Villahermosa (September 2000). "World War II". "Honor and Fidelity" — The 65th Infantry Regiment in Korea 1950 - 1954 (Official Army Report on the 65th Infantry Regiment). U.S. Army Center of Military History. Retrieved on 2007-03-18.
  20. ^ W.W. Harris (2001). Puerto Rico's Fighting 65th U.S. Infantry:From San Juan to Chowon. Presidio Press. ISBN 0-89141-056-2. 
  21. ^ Colonel Gilberto Villahermosa (2000). "Juan Cesar Cordero-Davila". valerosos. Retrieved on 2007-03-18.
  22. ^ Shelby, Stanton (1984). World War II Order of Battle. New York: Galahad Books. 
  23. ^ Oral History Project Bonilla, Retrieved July 17, 2008
  24. ^ Juan De La Cruz. "Combat engineer Fernando Pagan went from Normandy to Belgium and Germany, where a sniper nearly killed him". U.S. Latinos and Latinas & WWII Oral History Project. Retrieved on 2007-03-18.
  25. ^ Jennifer Nalewicki. "Louis Ramirez recalls brutality of war; but what still shines through is the camaraderie". U.S. Latinos and Latinas & WWII Oral History Project. Retrieved on 2007-03-18.
  26. ^ Oral History Project Unanue, Retrieved July 17, 2008
  27. ^ The Puerto Rican Diaspora: Historical; By Carmen Teresa Whalen and Víctor Vázquez; Pg. 78; Published 2005 by Temple University Press; ISBN:1592134130
  28. ^ Irizarry's DSC Citation, Retrieved June 6, 2008
  29. ^ "Who was Agustín Ramos Calero?" (PDF). The Puerto Rican Soldier (August 17, 2005). Retrieved on 2006-11-19.
  30. ^ Chris Nay. "Santos Deliz". Retrieved on 2007-03-18.
  31. ^ "Memories of a Jug Driver". worldwar2pilots.com. Retrieved on 2007-03-18.
  32. ^ "T/Sgt. Clement Resto". valerosos.com. Retrieved on 2007-03-18.
  33. ^ Latinos and Latinas in WW II—Fernando Bernacett By Jenny White
  34. ^ a b c Judith Bellafaire. "Puerto Rican Servicewomen in Defense of the Nation". Women In Military Service For America Memorial Foundation. Retrieved on October 10, 2006.
  35. ^ Katie Kennon. "Young woman's life defined by service in Women's Army Corps". US Latinos and Latinas & World War II. Retrieved on 2006-10-10.
  36. ^ "USNA graduates of Hispanic descent for the Class of 1911, 1915, 1924, 1927, 1931, 1935, 1939, 1943, 1947". Association of Naval Service Officers. Retrieved on 2007-03-18.
  37. ^ David H. Lippman. "World War II Plus 55". Retrieved on 2007-03-18.
  38. ^ USS Grundy – Letters
  39. ^ USS Sloat (DE-245)
  40. ^ *Robert F. Dorr (January 26, 2004). "Damn the Torpedoes! Former VCNO excelled in combat, technical roles". Navy Times. Archived from the original on 2004-01-21. Retrieved on 2006-10-21.
  41. ^ "The Submarine Forces Diversity Trailblazer - Capt. Marion Frederick Ramirez de Arellano"; Summer 2007 Undersea Warfare magazine; pg.31
  42. ^ "CAPT Marion Frederic Ramirez de Arellano". USNA graduates of Hispanic descent for the Class of 1911, 1915, 1924, 1927, 1931, 1935, 1939, 1943, 1947. Association of Naval Services Officers (February 27, 2007). Retrieved on 2007-03-15.
  43. ^ a b *Sontag, Sherry; and Christopher Drew, with Annette Lawrence Drew (1998). Blind Man's Bluff: The Untold Story of American Submarine Espionage. Public Affairs. ISBN 006097771X. 
  44. ^ Collection of the U.S. Military Academy Library, Pages 132–133; Publication: Assembly; Summer 1969
  45. ^ PATRIOTS UNDER FIRE: JAPANESE AMERICANS IN WORLD WAR II
  46. ^ "Appendix X, Commands and Staff". Bougainville and the Northern Solomons. USMC Historical Monograph (April 9, 2007). Retrieved on 2007-04-09.
  47. ^ Puerto Rico Archives
  48. ^ "Lieutenant General Pedro A. Del Valle, USMC". History Division. United States Marine Corps. Retrieved on October 10, 2006.
  49. ^ "Discrimination". History.com. Retrieved on 2007-03-18.
  50. ^ a b D'Arcy Kerschen. "Despite war's end and brother's horror stories, man was intent on joining military". Utopia: U.S. Latinos and Latinas & WWII Oral History Project. Retrieved on 2007-03-18.
  51. ^ Juan de la Cruz. "Man survived jungle fever, suicide attacks and kangaroos during service in Pacific". Utopia: U.S. Latinos and Latinas & WWII Oral History Project. Retrieved on 2007-03-18.
  52. ^ "The Puerto Rican Soldier". El Pozo Productions (2001). Retrieved on 2007-03-18.
  53. ^ Puerto Rico Herald, Retrieved July 15, 2008
  54. ^ a b Anne Quach. "Frank Bonilla became major figure in Puerto Rican studies". Utopia: U.S. Latinos and Latinas & WWII Oral History Project. Retrieved on 2007-03-18.
  55. ^ "Minority Groups in World War II". U.S. Army Center of Military History. Retrieved on 2007-03-18.
  56. ^ "World War II By The Numbers". The National World War II Museum (2006). Retrieved on 2007-03-18.
  57. ^ "Monumento de la Recordacion". Searching For Our Roots (February 10, 2006). Retrieved on 2007-03-18.

See also

Puerto Rico portal
World War II portal

References

Further reading

  • del Valle, Pedro (1976). Semper fidelis: An autobiography. Christian Book Club of America. ASIN B0006COTKO. 
  • Gordy, Bill (1945). Right to be proud: History of the 65th infantry division's march across Germany. J. Wimmer. ASIN B0007J8K74. 
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